This paper has been published in Journal of Vocational Education and Training, volume 55, no. 1 2003

STRUCTURAL BARRIERS TO THE TAKE-UP OF HIGHER LEVEL NVQS

Stephen Swailes, University College Northampton
Simon Roodhouse, University Vocational Awards Council

Modified 8 April 2003
Revised after proof reading, 27 May 2003-05-28
ABSTRACT

This paper explores perceptions of barriers to the take-up of higher level NVQs (levels 4/5). The literature on higher NVQ adoption is reviewed together with uptake statistics. Research involving interviews and case studies showed that the most successful higher NVQs are linked to professional qualifying routes, have generic application across a range of sectors, or fill gaps where qualifications were not previously established. Higher NVQs suffer from credibility problems and variable delivery quality partly accounts for a tarnished image. Support for occupational standards is strong but their design is not generally suited to higher qualifications. Awarding bodies need to assess the learning experience on award programmes more closely. Funding mechanisms disadvantage higher NVQs particularly in the university sector. NVQs are perceived to be relatively costly, however there is little data available to enable objective comparison. Suggestions for overcoming these barriers are offered.

STRUCTURAL BARRIERS TO HIGH LEVEL NVQs

Introduction

Vocational education and training (VET) has global significance but can differ widely in the way it functions and the objectives it sets out to achieve. (Gill, Dar and Fluitman, 1999; Greenhalgh, 1999; Kellie, 1999). Recent initiatives in the UK have focussed on a National Vocational Qualification (NVQ) framework that, following several reviews of education and training, was introduced in 1986 in response to the ad hoc vocational qualification landscape built up in a typically pragmatic British way since 1945. This had increasingly failed to deliver the highly skilled workforce that employers wanted nor had it allowed upskilling of the unemployed. However the introduction of a national scheme bringing education and training together has led to passionate and polarised reactions. One opponent claimed that the movement ‘was perpetuating a disaster of epic proportions’ (Smithers, 1993) and Hyland (1994, p.116) considered NVQs to be behind ‘an utterly impoverished and dehumanised approach to vocational education’. Advocates of NVQs such as Hillier (1995) accused academics of running scared and argued that, by concentrating on the true skills and knowledge needed to perform jobs, the economy would benefit.

Having weathered these storms and endured successive governments, the number of NVQs awarded passed 3 million in 2001 and yet concerns remain over their usefulness and status. While the number of awards is high, there is unease about their effectiveness in relation to their original aims. The level of NVQ adoption at the higher levels, 4 and 5 is one such concern. Compared to other European countries, Britain has lower participation in VET than might be expected from its economic position. On the continent, vocational qualifications have more currency, take longer to achieve and have more robust practical and written assessments (Prais, 2001). On the basis that structural barriers to the adoption of high level NVQs exist, this paper attempts to identify them and begins with a review of the literature before reporting the results of new research.

The UK Competency Movement

Historical perspective

By the 1970s, both the British and US economies faced strong competition from nations using similar production technologies but with much lower labour costs. Government concern about falling competitiveness stimulated reviews by the then Manpower Services Commission (MSC, 1981) which underlined the need for a flexible and skilled workforce that could respond to global economic changes. The importance of occupational competence was championed and qualifications were deemed necessary in vocations not well served by the education sector. It was also recognised that existing qualifications seemed to be failing to meet the new challenges. Following the Review of Vocational Qualifications, it was recognised that there was a need for a nationally co-ordinated qualification framework. This was achieved by the creation of Industry Lead Bodies to oversee the production of occupational standards and the formation of the National Council for Vocational Qualifications (NCVQ) in 1986 to oversee the management of National Vocational Qualifications. The responsibility for quality assurance of NVQs passed from the NCVQ to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) in 1998. For detailed accounts of the background to NVQs see Franklin (1997) and Hargraves (1998, 2000). The principles underpinning NVQ are as follows:

· reflect the needs of employers and individuals
· provide qualifications which reflect the achievements of clear standards of competence
· provide more effective career and training routes for individuals
· be less concerned about passing knowledge-based examinations and more concerned with performance in the workplace
· be accessible to all sections of society without unnecessary barriers
· identify common areas of competence across sectors and occupations

Five NVQ levels were created capturing the competence and knowledge required to perform basic operations (level 1) up to complex, unpredictable, strategic tasks (level 5). Level 4 broadly equates with undergraduate level study and level 5 with post graduate study. Two interpretations of ‘competence’ are worth noting. Some models distinguish between threshold and superior performance (Boyatzis, 1982; Brown, 1993) but the NVQ model uses the term in the sense of satisfactory, efficient, acceptable and normal performance in a job as identified through functional analysis (MCI, 1990). Thus the British model is open to criticism for not reflecting high performance in individuals and for organisations.

Statistical and Market Overview

The primary source of data on NVQs is the QCA which provided most of the data used in this study. Other sources such as awarding bodies do not release statistics into the public domain. In June 2001, there were 776 current NVQ titles although their take up has been uneven. In the popular area ‘Providing Business Services’ prior to October 2000, 85 of the 165 available NVQ titles had achieved less than 100 awards each and of these 27 had attracted no awards at all. It is worth noting that Industry lead Bodies were encouraged to develop standards of occupational competence and NVQs that met their sector’s needs and this explains the large number of titles approved for the framework by NCVQ/QCA. At levels 4 and 5, ‘Providing Business Services’ is comfortably the most popular area and almost all the awards at level 5 have been in subjects related to Management.

By September 2001, 3.5 million NVQ certificates had been awarded of which 95.1% were at levels 1-3 and well over half of these were at level 2. Of the remainder, about 110,000 awards had been achieved at level 4 and 8,200 at level 5 (see Table I).

[TAKE IN TABLE I HERE]

Table II shows recent trends in the numbers of NVQ certificates awarded at each level. Annual increases in the numbers of level 4 awards have risen slowly but steadily to 13,770 in 2000 and 14,395 in 2001. Awards at level 5 have been steady at around 1,000 each year. Awards at level 4 and 5 (combined) grew steadily from 8,904 in 1996 to 15,352 in 2001.

[TAKE IN TABLE II]

Table III confirms the most popular higher NVQs are in accounting and management. This success can be attributed to the adoption of accounting NVQs as a qualifying route by the Association of Accounting Technicians (AAT), the inclusion of management NVQs in the Institute of Management’s professional entry route and the wide appeal of the generic management qualifications to a range of sectors.

[TAKE IN TABLE III HERE]

Forecasts for numbers in employment with higher level qualifications including NVQs (Wilson, 2000) are shown in Table IV. Between 1991 and 1998, the numbers of people in the employed workforce with a post-graduate level qualification grew by 747,000 and is projected to grow by another 465,000 to 2009. The number holding a level 4 qualification (first degree, HND, nursing, teaching) grew by 1.2 million from 1991 to 1998 and is projected to grow by a further 1.6 million to 2009. Given that about 5,500 level 5 and about 70,000 level 4 NVQs were awarded up to the end of 1998, then NVQs per se had a small share of the market; about 0.7% of postgraduate level qualifications and 5.8% at the sub degree and first degree level between 1991 and 1998.

[TAKE IN TABLE IV HERE]

Table V shows the higher education qualifications obtained in 1999/00. The award of 13,720 level 4 NVQs in the year to September 2000 represents 4.3% of the total market for level 4 equivalent qualifications (first degrees and sub-degree qualifications) awarded. However, assuming that all NVQ4 are completed part time, they represent 18.1% of the market for part-time level 4 awards. The 876 NVQ5 awarded in the year to September 2000 represent 1% of all level 5 awards and 1.7% of the part time market for all level 5 awards (post graduate).
[TAKE IN TABLE V HERE]

For NVQ4, further education and tertiary colleges provide 55% of awards, private training providers 25%, employers 11%, overseas centres 3% and higher education institutions, 2%. For NVQ5, FE and tertiary provide 36%, private providers 39%, employers 16% and higher education institutions 8%. (Source: QCA, coverage 1999/00 academic year). For levels 4 and 5 combined, the higher education sector provided only 2.5% of all awards. This finding is consistent with the UVAC report, Utilisation of National Vocational Qualifications in Higher education Institutions in England and Wales.

Trends in the take-up of NVQs by title are shown in Appendix 1. Accounting leads the table with 5744 awards in 2000 with Management level 4 following at around 3200 awards and there is a discernible upward trend in level 5. Other titles demonstrating notable growth are Care, Guidance, Occupational Health and Safety Practice, Building Site Management, Procurement, Waste Management and Treatment, and Community Justice. Further growth can be expected in areas regulated by public authorities such as social services. Within the business sector, adoption rates for NVQs vary from less than 1% in micro business (1-10 employees), 3.4% in small business (11-49), 15.2% in medium-sized business (50-250) and 25.8% in businesses over 250 employees (Matlay, 1999, 2000). This is unsurprising as the larger companies have more resources at their disposal to implement staff development programmes.

Advocates of NVQs can point to over 3 million people in work gaining a qualification over the past 15 years who would not normally consider entering further or higher education. Critics on the other hand can claim that this represents a small proportion of the employed workforce, it is mostly low level and in areas that are far removed from the problem areas of manufacturing and engineering and will make little impact on workforce flexibility (Hyland and Matlay, 1998, p.407). However, whichever stance is preferred, qualifying 3 million people to standards is a major achievement and is significant for the individuals involved.

About 23% of higher education institutions (HEIs) offered NVQs either stand-alone or in combination with other awards (UVAC, 2000). Possible barriers to NVQ adoption in universities are the need to deal with external awarding bodies and implement additional quality assurance procedures and a lack of financial support. Wheeler (1997) observed that there was widespread ambivalence in universities towards competency-based education at the higher levels. Two thirds of the HEIs offering NVQs were post-1992 universities and the NVQ concept ‘generally remains unclear in many institutions’ (UVAC, 2000, p.27).

Perceptions or Reality - Criticisms of NVQs

Infrastructure and Standards

Claims that NVQs are employer-led are dismissed by Hyland (1996) in a passionate review of faults in vocational education. Hyland draws on Beaumont’s finding that most managers would prefer to recognise NVQs awarded by other employers and recommends that NVQs ‘should be returned to the workplace and removed from all courses in schools, colleges and non-workplace training institutions’ (1996, p.359). It is after all an assessment regime not a course model of learning. This idea is appealing for lower NVQs but whether the market would support similar views of higher NVQs is questionable. Given the universities’ historic role in vocational education (e.g. medicine, law, engineering) there seems no overriding reason why they should not be successful in other areas (CVCP, 1995; Randall, 1995).

The standards embedded in Management NVQs, a relative NVQ success story, provide a useful illustration of the criticisms surrounding standards of occupational competence. The management standards portray management as generalisable and value free and thus ignore the contingent nature of management and the political nature of organisations (Grugulis, 2000; Loan-Clarke, 1996). The content of standards fosters a ‘suffocating’ assessment experience ‘devoid of critical engagement with the social and political issues which determine much professional activity’ (Ecclestone, 1997, p.77). This could explain the low completion rates often observed (Hillier, 1997). Content and style were noted by Beaumont (1995, p.13) and the Employment Department (ED, 1995) found that a majority of employers felt that language and format were inappropriate. Calls for simplification using plain language have not been heeded and the unwelcoming design and content of standards can be a barrier to acceptance by candidates. Brown (1999) found that stipulations governing assessment and the fear of long completion times impeded the design of tailored development programmes. The question arising here is whether it is better to have copious and detailed standards that specify evidence requirements or simpler, holistic standards that concentrate on the critical aspects of assessment (Eraut, 2001, p.97).

Reputation

Matlay (2000) reasoned that the cumulative effects of negative publicity about NVQs ‘were very damaging’ to their reputation. This problem of perceived lack of credibility and image was acknowledged following the Beaumont report (NCVQ, 1996). NVQs added to the qualifications ‘jungle’ (Williams, 1999) and the promised reforms and simplifications of vocational training in the UK (NCVQ, 1987, p.5) never happened. Employers were confused by the framework, and with other aspects of NVQ provision, to the extent that the government announced an extensive review of operations (Beaumont, 1995). The need for a review pointed to structural weaknesses in the institutional arrangements for vocational education. One factor identified by Beaumont (1995, p.24) is the requirement for employers, and universities, to deal with several awarding bodies in order to offer a range of NVQs adding cost and confusion to NVQ programmes. Fuller (1994) proposed that qualifications can be seen as having two important dimensions. ‘Use’ value (relevance to actual work and tasks) and ‘exchange’ value (enabling holders to get a better job for instance). The literature suggests that higher NVQs struggle in terms of both use and exchange.

Much of this criticism is grounded in the inability of successive governments to bring the national education and training systems closer together or support the rationalisation of national qualifications in the interests of clarity. Furthermore, it cannot be expected that a new national qualification structure is immediately recognised and adopted by employers and employees when it has taken a substantial period, over 30 years for HNDs for example, to become an established feature on the qualification landscape.

The Learning Experience

The process of portfolio building is not well known and students can struggle to understand both the nature of evidence and ways of relating it to standards (Hillier, 1999). This problem is linked directly to the precise content and structure of occupational standards and their evidence requirements (Grugulis, 1997a, 1997b). Higher NVQs have a poor reputation for developing skills and knowledge (Hillier, 1999). In management NVQs for example, a recurring problem is that candidates feel they are not learning much that is new and are only being accredited for what they know they can do already (Fuller, 1994; Holman and Hall, 1996).

One caveat concerning studies of learning experiences (Grugulis, 2000; Hillier, 1999) is that they may not have distinguished between problems directly linked to the standards and poor learning/teaching methods used by providers possibly caused by poor programme design or tutors with little commitment to NVQs. Because these two aspects cannot easily be untangled, this problem hangs over most studies of candidates’ experiences.

Completion rates are also troublesome. National data for NVQs in management show that completions were running at about 30% of registrations (Swailes and Brown, 1999). This is a remarkably high non-completion rate and could reflect problems with the overall learning experience. Hooper (2000) found that completion rates are bolstered by high levels of leadership competence, good written communication skills, inter-personal sensitivity, support from line managers, strong motivation to improve work performance and inflexible submission dates. Low completion rates should be seen in context, however. NVQs fit a lifelong learning ethos. While high completion rates within set times are convenient for colleges, it is perhaps an unfair criticism of NVQs since they were not designed to fit into such systems.

Costs and Returns

There has been relatively little work on the real costs of NVQs. The Employment Department (ED, 1994) noted that the costs of NVQs differed widely. Large variations occur in the time required for assessment. Some training regimes were more expensive than others as are the costs of training assessors and differing approaches to quality assurance. The income generated from improvements to working practices and which could offset training costs was highly variable. Differences occur in the competence of people doing NVQs such that process costs differed widely across candidates. Employers struggled to calculate how NVQ-based training led to savings and/or more efficient working practices.

Hyland and Matlay (1998, p.407) reported that the costs of work-based NVQs, in general, are high relative to other forms of training and this seems likely to create a barrier at least in small organisations. Small firms are also deterred by negative views of NVQs being top-down, prescriptive and with little evidence that they lead to improvements (Welsh, 1996). However, key determinants of the amount of training in small firms are the link between training and organisational success (Hyland and Matlay, 1997) and the presence of a training culture and infrastructure (Hales et al, 1996). Of more import perhaps are the returns derived from particular qualifications. Dearden et al (2000) found that men with an NVQ3-5 earn around a 6-9% return whereas women earn around a 1-5% return. In comparison, ‘A’ levels gave around a 16-17% return for men and 18-23% for women. First degrees gave between a 16-28% return for men and 21-25% for women. (Returns represent the percentage above average earnings typically associated with possession of a particular qualification). However the qualification does provide entry and/or re-entry to learning and is increasingly being linked to pay benefits such as the BP retail staff scheme.

Benefits of higher NVQs

The empirical literature has taken, thus far, a largely critical stance of higher NVQs although several studies were found reporting more positive aspects. Students entering taught postgraduate management programmes from a competence route performed just as well as traditional-entry students in a majority of assessments (Taylor, 1996). This finding supports the idea of credit rating NVQs in higher education (see ED, 1995; Lloyd-Langton and Portwood, 1994) although the practical benefit of doing so is questionable since there seems little evidence that students seek to use academic credits gained via NVQs to access other programmes. NVQ holders report growth in personal confidence resulting from their programmes (Hillier, 1999; Swailes, 1997). Winterton and Winterton (1997) found that management development based on the MCI’s standards can lead to improved individual and organisational performance. While standards have been criticised for their design they have uses beyond qualifications. They help to upskill the workforce and help improve systems and procedures in organisations such as recruitment and selection or information management (Hillier, 1999) and inform the content of other qualifications. In time, the use of standards per se and their use as qualifications may diverge. While standards are playing an important role in training and development it does not necessarily follow that, as detailed specifications, they are suited to higher qualifications.

The literature has pointed to several major areas of criticism and yet the numbers achieving a full NVQ4 are considerable. Against this background, the research set out to explore the factors influencing higher level NVQ uptake.

Research Methods

Information was collected from over 80 organisations representing a range of stakeholder groups in spring 2002.Telephone interview protocols were designed to explore perceptions of barriers held by each group. The protocols adopted a semi-structured approach built around key themes rather than impose a pre-set list of closed questions. Summaries were written immediately after the completion of each telephone interview. Summaries were then compared for each stakeholder group in order to draw out the main perceptions

The sample included 17 universities, 12 awarding bodies and National Training Organisations (NTO), 12 Small Business Services (SBS), 12 Learning and Skills Councils (LSC), 10 private and 10 public sector employers, and 10 students that had completed a full NVQ at level 4 or 5. The university sample included seven universities currently running higher NVQ programmes, three that had ceased delivering high level programmes, one that was considering setting up provision and six not involved NVQ provision. The subjects covered included management, cultural heritage, guidance, engineering, training and development, health and social services, veterinary nursing practice and the sample represented England, Wales and Northern Ireland. NTOs were selected on the basis that they had developed higher NVQs in their field. For consistency, the SBS were mostly located in the same region as served by the LSC. They were geographically dispersed and covered rural, urban and mixed economies.

Of the 10 students contacted, 6 had completed a level 5 in Management, 3 had completed level 4 in Management and 1 had completed level 4 Business Administration. Four students had been required to complete the NVQ as part of their job. All students had been registered with the same centre although they were from different cohorts. Each had undertaken workshops and other taught inputs as part of their NVQ programme. In addition, face-to-face interviews were held with managers in a range of organisations including a theatre company, a small electronics manufacturer, a medium sized chemicals manufacturer, a large retailer, an NHS trust, a professional body, a County Council and a professional institution. Eight case studies were written reflecting the stance of these organisations towards NVQs and were returned to the originators for comments and corrections before being finalised. Summary case findings are given in Appendix 2.

Findings – Stakeholder Perceptions

Learning and Skills Councils

A noticeable barrier concerned the perceptions of NVQs as lower level qualifications by employers and individuals. Negative perceptions were thought to derive from a lack of knowledge and experience of NVQs and the value they can bring. Careers officers, parents, and teachers were thought to lack knowledge of NVQs and thus discourage take up. Negative perceptions were also attributed to professional bodies and universities – some snobbery around the academic/vocational distinction was suggested. NVQs were not seen by users or employers as being on a par with degree level qualifications. At high levels, it was felt that traditional qualifications had greater credibility.

Completion times were cited as a problem, particularly in small firms. This arises because awards require a support infrastructure that consumes the time of other employees. Higher NVQs were said to be particularly ‘greedy’ in terms of time requirements compared to other qualifications at the same level. Public perceptions of NVQs need addressing, making clear how they relate to other qualifications and demonstrating ‘parity of esteem’. Government funding of NVQ levels 2 and 3 had increased demand and when approached LSC had funded higher NVQs. Even so, funding mechanisms at levels 4 and 5 need radically changing as LSCs do not have a responsibility to fund NVQs in higher education institutions. Professional bodies should be encouraged to integrate NVQs more with their entrance qualifications. NVQs also need to be more flexible to better fit individual jobs and ease the evidencing process.

Small Business Services (Business Links)

Small firms had low training spends and SBS were not always able to help with funding. Completion times were regarded by some as a higher barrier than costs and financing. Small firms preferred short (non NVQ) courses that are less expensive in terms of the time lost to employers while training occurs. Small businesses were thought to have poor perceptions of higher NVQs and at all levels saw NVQs as lacking flexibility and “particularity” which occur with tailored qualifications. Small businesses also saw the portfolio process as isolating while short courses enabled trainees to work with others with similar problems. Poor perceptions were based partly on bad experiences with NVQ providers. SBS also recognised that small firms lacked knowledge about NVQs and how they could be used. This view was associated with concerns that small firms saw NVQs as being saturated with impenetrable jargon. NVQs need to be marketed differently showing their relevance to small businesses with an emphasis on the “business case” for NVQs. One respondent stressed that confusion around funding, advice, guidance and the number of providers needed to be addressed to give more uniformity.

Universities

Since the mid 1990s, delivery of higher NVQs has been curtailed due to lack of demand. NVQs had been ‘peripheral’ to universities’ core activities and their survival had depended upon committed individuals sometimes with little support from the centre. In the management field, the sector is ‘crowded’ with qualifications and there is little incentive for NVQs in a free market. One university reported growth in an advice and guidance NVQ partly because there are no competing qualifications. Lack of demand was partly due to funding problems although not all those surveyed felt that this was a barrier. Programmes are too expensive without funding and corporate clients can easily find lower cost providers. Decreasing demand also stems from the internalisation of NVQ frameworks into organisations that have used them to develop competence in preference to opting for full qualifications.

Relations with awarding bodies were generally good. There is still a view that NVQs involve too much paperwork and that the associated jargon deters candidates. They are perceived to be mechanistic, reductionist, tedious to complete and not developmental. Difficulties for students finding and providing evidence were part of the decision to drop NVQs at some centres. The real learning benefits of NVQs and their potential for skill development were underplayed by those marketing them. Several respondents noted the poor image of NVQs and their association with low level qualifications. Students often completed NVQs only because they were a mandatory requirement. While this may also be true of other qualifications it seems particularly influential with NVQs. Universities involved in NVQs felt that NVQs were beset by ‘snobbery’ towards the competence movement. Those not providing NVQs felt that the further education sector was the right place for them citing a distinction between vocational and academic awards.

To stimulate take-up, a more ‘user friendly’ framework is needed to house NVQs in universities. Better marketing of NVQs by universities should make it clearer how enquirers can get good advice and should differentiate between higher and lower NVQs better. However, commitment from senior university managers is needed before NVQs can raise their profile. NVQ provision occurs ‘opportunistically’ with provision occurring through contracting-out or through peripheral departments. Stronger links between mainstream courses and NVQs would help to ‘embed’ NVQs and they need to be seen more in the context of structured development programmes. The public sector has been the most effective in achieving this.

Awarding Bodies

Where NVQs are mandatory, then no specific barriers were identified although they are not without problems. A general lack of understanding about NVQs and how they work existed. The term ‘NVQ’ was again associated with low level qualifications. Candidates for higher NVQs were assumed to want developmental qualifications with higher kudos. Academic qualifications were deemed to give more breadth and provide better value to students and employers in the longer term. They were not valued highly by employers and the whole recognition issue created a significant barrier. Greater parity of vocational and academic qualifications is needed although awarding bodies felt that universities do not see NVQs as equivalent to academic qualifications.

Funding was a fundamental issue. Level 3 NVQs have been boosted by linkage to the Modern Apprenticeship Framework and the relative absence of funding for levels 4/5 is a barrier as is the costs of higher NVQs to employers. The time needed to build a portfolio around normal work activities is problematic. Taught qualifications built around regular time slots are easier to manage and complete. The standard approach to assessment used at lower levels does not fit as comfortably at higher level NVQs.

There are difficulties finding assessors for higher NVQs because of the knowledge and competence required. A Welsh awarding body noted difficulties finding Welsh-speaking assessors to work with Welsh-speaking candidates and this affected completion rates. Two awarding bodies reported shortages of specific higher NVQ titles. Accountancy and care services are examples. Such awards could, however, be partially redundant with existing qualifications. Some re-branding of high level awards together with increased promotion and funding by government were suggested to improve take-up and perceptions.

Standards were criticised for being rigid, too complex and ridden with jargon. Ironically, while national occupational standards are designed to be generic (eg, NVQ4 Management should fit all middle managers), the standards were thought to fit individual jobs poorly. NVQs contain too many core units and not enough options, hence more scope through optional units was suggested. This would enable greater flexibility although it is necessary to redesign standards overall rather than add more units generated from the current model

Public Sector Employers

There is an historical stigma attached to NVQs stemming from the “bad press” when they were introduced. They struggle to be recognised as professional qualifications since employees often need a recognised certificate or diploma to practice and they are seen differently to academic qualifications. Portfolio production is an additional workload for people with demanding jobs and the portfolio was thought by some to be an administrative nightmare. The open-ended structure of NVQs was thought to have an effect on completion rates and should be replaced with more fixed times and targets surrounding assessment and completion.

A mismatch between occupational standards and individual jobs was reported. This creates barriers since it is nearly impossible for some candidates to evidence some units given that simulation is discouraged. Cost to employers was an issue. Without external funding, NVQ costs are prohibitive and sources of external funding have diminished. Because of the diverse content of standards, employers found difficulty identifying internal assessors for higher NVQs. An example of NVQs being out of alignment came from a government department where most staff were either too well- qualified on entry to be interested in NVQs or too junior to do higher NVQs. High staff turnover within the department also depressed demand. Employers called for more publicity to raise awareness and favourable perceptions. To overcome concerns about the value of NVQs, universities were called upon to clarify the position of NVQs as entrance qualifications and to dual NVQs with certificates and diplomas in order to emphasise parity.

Private Sector Employers

Senior managers lacked understanding about what NVQs are and how they work. Some evidence for academic/vocational divisiveness was noted such that they were not thought to be rigorous enough for senior managers. Such perceptions lead to the quality and value of the awards being considered less worthwhile than other alternatives. Conversely, in two small firms surveyed, the attitudes to NVQs were positive but there was no history of higher NVQ usage nor were there any plans to use them.

NVQs were thought to be time consuming even though some employers would grant students release from work in order to provide evidence. The standards were thought to have insufficient fit with typical jobs and so access to evidence for some units becomes difficult or impossible. Their content was described by one as ‘petty, antiquated and long-winded’. In-house training was considered more effective because it can be more tailored. One manufacturer cited the withdrawal of a large retailer from NVQ training programmes as off-putting because if the resources of the retailer could not make NVQs effective then neither could the smaller manufacturer. Employers felt that a public relations exercise is needed to promote NVQs and the views of NVQs held by senior managers needs to change. The perceived value of NVQs needs to be raised and more flexibility, eg., through more optional units, would help. In the private sector, NVQs are seldom a requirement to get a job and this helps create a ‘vicious circle’ of depressed demand.

Successful NVQ Candidates

Eight people said that a management NVQ had helped them either by gaining the theory underpinning practice or by giving a benchmark for their performance as a manager. A beneficial aspect was that NVQs highlighted various management skills that students had not previously considered or used and which could be applied in their work. The NVQ portfolio enabled students to reflect on their work and management skills. This process asked, ‘how effective am I as a manager’, and by looking at things from different viewpoint it highlighted weaknesses. Some students had used their NVQ to gain new jobs. Only two students said the NVQ had not helped in their job. They felt that they carried no recognition despite the work undertaken to gain them. One student felt that it carried no ‘weight’, unlike the masters degree that she since obtained, to such an extent that she omits the NVQ from her C.V.

Nine students said the NVQ was developmental and had increased their confidence and overall awareness of other elements of management and personal skills. It also demonstrated how to manage workloads and ways of being efficient as well as the ability to recognise skills that students already possessed but which they undervalued. NVQs gave students the ability to reflect on self as well as the relationships with other members of staff, while overall communication is improved – this combination has reduced stress in some students. Portfolio compilation was a problem in particular the volume of evidence needed. Managing to find evidence and match it with the standards was also a problem as it did not always tie in with their job at the time. Some students felt the standards were unclear. Finding the time to complete a portfolio had been a major problem for some and this put great pressure on their personal life.

The most frequently cited barrier was the view that NVQs do not carry the recognition that degrees have and this leads to a stigma attached to them. Less portfolio work was the main suggestion to improve the process. The standards need to be clearer about the evidence that is needed. NVQs need to become more flexible regarding evidence as not all jobs can provide the required evidence. Lastly, NVQs need to improve their image and recognition level. Some students saw an NVQ as the sort of qualification that is completed by those who are not academic enough to do something better.

Funding mechanisms for NVQs

The Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) is prohibited from funding NVQs since they are not included in the courses defined as eligible for funding by the Education Reform Act 1988. HEFCW (Wales) reported that they were reviewing their policy on NVQ funding. The LSC provide funding for higher level NVQs through Work Based Learning if students: are under 25 and do not have a degree; attend an LSC contracted work based learning provider and attempt an NVQ on a list of NVQs approved in the provider’s contract with the LSC; undertake a ‘straight’ NVQ, ie, not an NVQ as part of another qualification.

Outside the Work Based Learning context, the LSC funds students on higher level NVQs in further education colleges. Colleges and universities that enrol students on traditional courses, e.g. degrees attract a payment from a funding body on a per capita basis. Since the government wants nearly all 16-18 year olds in some form of formal learning, and since the 2002 learning targets for young people will not quite be met (DfES, 2002), funding arrangements appear geared towards achieving these objectives. With the adult learning targets more or less achieved, the only support for people who want to complete higher NVQs is available through further education colleges. Given the government’s intention to dismantle the academic-vocational divide, these arrangements appear to be somewhat anomalous.

Some universities have overcome the funding barrier by linking a higher NVQ to an academic award. Students are enrolled on the academic award with the university and with an NVQ awarding body. Because enrolments are for fundable HE courses, universities receive a fee payment. Judicious course design allows students to complete the requirements of both awards with one assessment strategy.

Discussion

The discussion draws on the survey’s findings and the literature. Given that NVQs are delivered through a wide range of providers and cover a wide range of occupations, generalisations from this study need to made with caution. Although some areas are successful, as judged by the numbers of full NVQs awarded, other NVQ areas attract little interest and this study suggests that there are some major flaws with higher NVQ provision. The discussion is structured around seven key areas and each area is revisited together with ideas for change.

Adoption trends

The volume of full higher NVQs awarded is not insubstantial and, while universities have reported a fall in NVQ activity, the overall level of higher NVQ take-up at around 15,000 full certificates a year represents an 18% share of the part-time higher qualifications market. Buoyant areas include accounting, management-related subjects, care and waste management. Level 5 NVQs seem to be struggling, however, and the uptake in areas that are well-served by alternative qualifications and where an NVQ is not mandatory or part of a qualifying route will remain low. Growth can be expected in areas that are not well-served by traditional qualifications. Further research is needed to better understand the market for higher NVQs in terms of the demographic, personal and job-related characteristics of students who complete them and the employers that support them.

Image and Promotion

There was good support for NVQs from stakeholders who feel that the qualifications are valuable even though the overall NVQ scene is patchy. Consistent with Matlay (2000) we found that some of the ‘bad press’ about NVQs has done lasting damage. Renewed marketing initiatives need to target a more positive image with new messages. Further use of old messages about real world competence and employer-led initiatives will not be effective. The living and working context has changed considerably since NVQs were introduced and the climate now is for high quality qualifications, lifelong learning and access to higher education. Higher NVQs have a role to play so long as branding and design issues are resolved.

Perceptions about the equivalence of NVQs and other qualifications need addressing. There was a general perception that NVQ5 is claimed to be equivalent to post graduate awards and yet there was little belief that this is a realistic or meaningful comparison. Communications strategies need to clarify the relationship between vocational and academic qualifications. People have a relatively clear idea of what it means to have a diploma or degree but they are less sure about what it means to have an NVQ and this is affected by the accrediting and developmental learning modes that are used. Both modes are allowed by standards and, in one sense, this is a ‘course versus assessment’ choice for providers. Colleges tend towards courses that fit into academic years whereas other providers tend towards more open-ended approaches. NVQs are concerned with accrediting knowledge and competence and the standards are silent about the methods by which they are demonstrated. This apparent advantage appears to be creating confusion about ‘what NVQs are’.

The marketing of higher NVQs is relatively weak. Higher NVQs are not ‘owned’ and promoted in the same ways as other qualifications. They are not quite the orphans of the qualifications ‘industry’ as the main parental role lies with awarding bodies. However, neither awarding bodies nor the university sector are promoting NVQs as much as comparable qualifications and this contributes to depressed take-up. Higher NVQ success stories are found where ownership comes through professional bodies who promote them well. Separate identities for higher NVQs that reinforce parity with academic qualifications need to be considered along with radically new delivery mechanisms for achieving higher NVQs.

Design of Standards

The role of national occupational standards in helping to improve the skills base of the workforce is widely accepted but it is pertinent to ask questions about the design of standards. There are many instances where the standards are seen as too generic such that they have a low correlation with job content. Furthermore, the use of extensive performance criteria and evidence (range) requirements present major obstacles to a rewarding learning experience when they are embodied in qualifications. It is disappointing that revised standards have offered little discernible improvements over their predecessors (CBI, 1989; Grugulis, 1998). Although there are examples of developmental approaches to portfolio building taking place there is nothing in the assessment regulations that discourages an historical, paper-trail approach. Awarding bodies, through their external verifiers, should develop clear visions for the type of learning programme and evidencing strategies that they wish to encourage.

National occupational standards have more uses than as NVQs, however. Greater distinction between standards as development frameworks and their use as qualifications is needed. This research suggests that the reductionist content of occupational standards is not compatible with the requirements of higher qualifications because of the influence on the learning experience. While there are rigorous procedures that govern the development of standards, new approaches to their incorporation in qualifications are needed.

The literature review noted the difference between threshold and best practice competence. Standards, as they appear in qualifications, need to have a stronger correlation with a wide range of jobs, be challenging and more enjoyable to evidence and bring about lasting impressions of personal development. Less focus on the minutiae of competence in favour of holistic assessment is called for. To enable enjoyable learning experiences some providers are using creative interpretations of standards (Eraut, Steadman and James, 2001) and this raises suspicions that the requirements and stipulations of standards are being overlooked. In sum, the design and content of standards as included in qualifications should catch-up with practice.

Further research is necessary to unravel new approaches to assessment. These need to put less emphasis on the use of historical documentation that shows coverage of reductionist competence in favour of more emphasis on validated accounts of previous work activities, demonstration of best practice, reflection on activities showing how and where learning occurred, the limitations of past experiences and thoughts about the application of learning. In the short term, awarding bodies in partnership with HE should rethink the NVQ process such that, without compromising quality, it is simplified and enhanced from the candidates’ viewpoint. This has implications for documentation given to candidates and the training of advisers and assessors.

Disseminating Good Practice

NVQs have a distinctive vocabulary and processes that are not well-understood by most students. Harm has been done to students and the reputation of NVQs by inexperienced advisers and assessors in centres without a clear vision of NVQ processes. While awarding bodies have always used tight criteria for centre approval, these criteria have played down the reality of the learning experience. Approval decisions should strengthen their emphasis on the value-adding experience that candidates receive. Drawing on the cumulative experience of NVQ delivery, thought should be given to ways of smoothing-out wide variations in NVQ practices and disseminating good practice.

Accreditation of Knowledge and Understanding

Colleges and universities are well-placed to contribute to high-level vocational education. One opportunity arises from the accreditation of knowledge (Randall, 1995, p.12) such as that gained from traditional long courses. There is no compulsion to assess competence and knowledge simultaneously at high levels and it should be relatively straightforward to benchmark the content of traditional courses with the knowledge statements in existing standards and create some form of accreditation scheme. The uptake of NVQs should be catalysed if people entering the workforce already have a substantial part of an NVQ accredited.

Costs and Value

NVQs are considered to be relatively costly in terms of personal time and expenditure. However, the key issue is not absolute cost, since there are many examples of high cost development around, rather it is a cost-benefit consideration. In a free market, the added value deriving from possession of higher NVQs generally does not warrant the inputs needed to achieve them. Added value in this context embraces considerations such as personal development, public recognition of the award, and the learning experience. Whereas Dearden et al (2000) found lower economic returns to NVQs, we found evidence of perceptions of lower returns when qualitative factors were considered. Given the perceived added value, it is important that delivery methods, assessment methods and quality assurance mechanisms for higher NVQs are reconsidered with a view to reducing the overall costs of the process.

Funding arrangements

The study supported the notion that the academic-vocational divide is accentuated by funding mechanisms. This area is politically-charged with no easy solutions. The most popular higher NVQs (accounting and management) benefit from links to further qualifications and the membership routes of professional bodies. Neither area appears to have been adversely affected by education funding mechanisms. Little, if any, evidence was found of demand for ‘straight’ higher NVQs and a lack of funding for them is arguably not a barrier. Furthermore, funding mechanisms can be utilised by linking an NVQ to a fundable qualification and this could help to overcome any negative images that students may have. NVQ awarding bodies and education providers should evaluate how courses eligible for HE funding can be linked to higher NVQs and use common assessment strategies (that is, two qualifications in one).

Conclusions

We have presented a review of the British experience with higher NVQs and incorporated fresh evidence from a range of stakeholders. The success of VET initiatives is influenced at a macro level by factors such as sector size and distribution, the rate of technological change, existing skills levels, and funding mechanisms. The British case demonstrates that micro level factors also impact upon success. These include the links between accreditation and learning, the degree of detail laid down in standards, transferability of learning, the link between standards and sector skills needs and the probity of assessment strategies. We have given some suggestions for making higher NVQs more effective and invite providers to consider them.

This paper is based on research commissioned by Edexcel in conjunction with Professor Simon Roodhouse, Chief Operating Officer, University Vocational Awards Council. The full report is ‘Structural Barriers to Higher Level NVQs’ available from UVAC, c/o University of Bolton of Higher Education, Bolton, BL2 1JW. The views expressed in the paper are those of the authors.

APPENDIX 1: TAKE-UP OF LEADING NVQS BY TITLE

The criterion for inclusion is the award of 50 or more certificates in 2000. Source QCA.
Appendix 2 Summary of case study drivers and barriers

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Table I. Cumulative Totals of NVQs Awarded by Level

(Period 1986 to 31 September 2001. Figures count only people receiving a full NVQ and thus exclude unit certification.)

Table II. Recent trends in NVQs Awarded by Level

(Source QCA. Year to 30 September)

Table III. The ten most popular higher level NVQs

(Source: QCA. Cumulative awards to 30 September, 2001. Management level 5 combines the old Management and the new Operations Management and Strategic Management)

Table IV.

Source Wilson (2000, p.14)

Table V. HE qualifications by level and mode of study, 1999/00

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